I. Introduction

[VIEW THE PHOTO GALLERY: The Philippine Air Force Visual History]

The Philippine Air Force (PAF) began as the Philippine Army Air Corps (PAAC). It was officially established as a separate branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) on July 1, 1947 through Executive Order No. 94, s. 1947 under the administration of President Manuel Roxas.

However, the PAF’s origins can be traced back as early as 1917, during World War I. In 1916, the passage of the Jones Law in the U.S. Congress was a momentous event for the Philippines. Through the law, the pledge of eventual independence—once Filipinos were ready for self-governance—was made. The Jones Law led to the creation of an all-Filipino legislature composed of the Philippine Senate and House of Representatives. At the time, the Constabulary and the U.S. Army remained at the forefront of the country’s defense under the U.S. War Department. Filipinos were also at first generally barred from joining the Constabulary. But civil positions were slowly being opened to Filipinos.

It was in this context that before the breakdown of the bilateral relations between the United States and Germany that culminated in a declaration of war on April 6, 1917, the Philippine Legislature, led by Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, offered the United States assistance by providing a whole division of Filipino troops.^[1] On March 17, 1917, the Philippine Legislature passed Act No. 2715. Otherwise known as the Militia Act, it provided for the creation of the Philippine National Guard (PNG), the creation of the Philippine Militia Commission, and authorized Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison to impose mandatory military service in the Philippines. The gesture was meant to be both a sign of loyalty to the United States and as proof of Filipinos’ capability for independence.^[2] The National Guard was also viewed by Filipino leaders as a potential nucleus for a future Philippine army under a department of defense, come independence.

In addition to infantry regiments with artillery and service units, the PNG was to have coastal artillery, cavalry, and air units. Those who qualified for the aviation section were sent to Fort Mills in Corregidor for ground training. Major Joseph E. H. Stevenot, a qualified fighter pilot who received flight training in the U.S., was placed in charge of the aviation section.^[3] On February 23, 1918, Governor-General Harrison cabled Henry P. McCain, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army, to offer him 35 Filipino students for flight training in the U.S., as they were close to finishing their ground training.^[4] However, the U.S. War Department replied a month later on March 15 that there were not enough planes for the Americans, let alone Filipinos.^[5] Three days later, the aviation unit was disbanded; those who completed ground training were sent to the Artillery Corps at Fort Stotsenburg (now Clark Air Base).^[6]

Actual flight training took place in 1919 with the establishment of the Curtiss School of Aviation (a franchise of the Curtiss School in San Diego, California) at Camp Claudio in Parañaque by Stevenot and Alfred J. Croft, his flight instructor during the war.^[7] The Philippine Militia Commission managed to acquire the U.S. Army’s surplus aircraft—in particular, several Curtiss JN-4 Jenny two-seater trainers and Curtiss HS1L Seagull three-seater flying boats—after the war for use in the Curtiss School.^[8] Thirty-three students—ten from the Philippine Constabulary (PC) and twenty-three from the PNG—were the first to undergo actual flight training. They were later joined by ten civilians, including Alfredo Carmelo, who would become the first Filipino to fly solo on January 9, 1920. Four months after Carmelo’s flight, Lieutenant Leoncio Malinao went on the first solo flight by a Filipino military pilot on April 26.^[9]

On June 21, 1920, Stevenot and Croft decided to showcase the talents of their students at an exhibition for government and military officials.^[10] The demonstration proved to be successful in rousing interest in an inter-island air service; on July 7, the Council of State formed the Philippine Air Service (PAS). The PAS made airmail and passenger flights between Manila and the southern ports of Iloilo, Cebu, and Zamboanga.^[11] Six graduates of the Curtiss School, including Malinao, were chosen for the PAS in February 1921. However, the PAS was short on funds, and thus short-lived. After he became Governor-General in May 1921, Leonard Wood abolished the PAS and turned over the aircraft, hangars, and equipment to the United States Air Service. Aviation in the Philippines would be put on hold for thirteen years.^[12]

When Brigadier General Basilio J. Valdes became chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1934, he expressed his interest in creating an aviation unit in the PC.^[13] On September 5, 1934, the Philippine Legislature passed Act No. 4194, which created the Philippine Constabulary Air Corps (PCAC) and allotted P519,000 for training, equipment, and facilities.^[14] The PCAC was created to assist the PC in its peacekeeping duties: reconnaissance, fighting locusts and other agricultural pests, and assisting customs and immigration officers.^[15]

II. Philippine Army Air Corps (PAAC)

With the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on November 15, 1935, the newly elected President Manuel L. Quezon issued Executive Order No. 2, s.1935, assuming command of all military forces of the Philippine government, thereby sending the signal that a Filipino chief executive had assumed the role of Commander-in-Chief, the power once held by Spanish and American governor-generals. The next day, President Quezon appointed Douglas MacArthur as military adviser to the Commonwealth, and established the Council of National Defense (Executive Order No. 3, s. 1935). To further bolster the defense of the Philippines and safeguard its pending independence in context of Japanese expansionism, the National Assembly passed Commonwealth Act No. 1 on December 21, 1935. Also known as the National Defense Act, it provided for the creation of the Philippine Army (PA) authorizing a national mobilization in the face of impending threat or aggression. Under Quezon’s orders, the PC became the nucleus of the PA—that is, they carried out the same duties as before, but they were now considered officers and men of the Philippine Army.^[16] This included the PCAC, which was renamed the Philippine Army Air Corps (PAAC). The PAAC’s main function was to protect the Philippine coast line, as the National Defense Act made no provisions for a navy.^[17]

The PAAC established a new flying school at Zablan Field (named after Porfirio Zablan, a PCAC pilot who died in a crash before his graduation) in Camp Murphy (now Camp Aguinaldo) and focused on training pilots first; aircraft acquisition was given less emphasis, because of the fast rate at which military aircraft became obsolete.^[18] The first class began on May 11, 1936 with U.S. Army Air Corps officers Lieutenants William L. Lee and Hugh A. Parker as flight instructors.^[19] Among their students was Lieutenant Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower of the Philippine Department; he would go on to become the Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in Europe and the 34th President of the United States.^[20]

MacArthur’s plan for the PCAC was to have 250 planes and 1,000 military pilots by 1946.^[21] Progress was slow, but Quezon was optimistic. In his annual report to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Quezon wrote about the PAAC’s progress:

Air Corps progress was maintained according to plan, and near the close of the year the first class of pilots trained exclusively at the Philippine Army Aviation School was graduated at Camp Murphy. Additional planes were acquired, the flying and auxiliary facilities were improved, and assistant flying instructors were developed from among Filipino pilots. This institution is now ready to begin functioning at scheduled capacity. Air Corps instruction continues to emphasize quality above quantity, but experience to date furnishes ample evidence that the adopted program will assure the availability, at the required time and in required numbers, of Filipino pilots of real aptitude and skill.^[22]

By 1939, tensions between the United States and Japan significantly heightened. Japan’s encroachment of China made a significant turn with its occupation of the French Indochina. According to military historian Louis Merton:

The possibility of war in the Far East was too real to be ignored and a reluctant [U.S.] Congress began to loosen the purse strings. But the years of neglect could not be remedied quickly. The demand for planes and weapons was great and the supply was limited. The Philippines was only one of many bases that had to be protected. Hawaii, Alaska, and Panama—which formed a strategic triangle whose defence was considered essential to the safety of the continental United States—had also been neglected and their needs had to be filled first.^[23]

The threat to the Philippines became real with the Japanese occupation of naval and air bases in southern Indochina on July 22, 1941. The defense of the Philippines could no longer be delayed.^[24]

On July 26, 1941, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt issued a military order bringing into active service the U.S. armed forces and the armed forces of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. The U.S. War Department thereby established a new command in the Pacific, calling it the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE). With its headquarters in Manila, it consisted of the military forces of the Commonwealth, incorporated into the USAFFE in the duration of the emergency, and the American forces previously in charge of the defense of the islands.^[25]

Ramon Alcaraz wrote in his diary on August 15, 1941, how the PAAC was the first Philippine Army unit to be drafted into the USAFFE, having trained the best flyers at the time:

This is a significant day for our young 5-year old Phil. Army. In consonance with Pres. Roosevelt’s order last July 26, the Phil. Army Air Corps (PAAC) is the first unit of PA inducted to the USAFFE today. What is remarkable is the inducting officer is Gen. MacArthur himself who swore the PAAC under the command of Maj. Basilio Fernando with his 141 air pilots, 17 ground O’s, 1,200 EM’s and 64 planes. Aside from Maj. Fernando and my 17 Classmates led by Lts. Victor Osias, Tomas Tirona, Bartolome Cabangbang, Pedro Baban, Horacio Farolan etc, among the others I know personally inducted today are Capts. Pelagio Cruz, Eustacio Orobia; Lts Benito Ebuen, Bienvenido Ferrer, P. Q. Molina, Jonas Victoria, Renato Bareto, Godofredo Juliano, Augusto Jurado, Manecio Raventar, Juan Guevara, J B Ramos, Jose Basa and Jesus Villamor.

It may be pertinent to remark here that PAAC was given early priority among the PA branches of service. It was organized in 1936 with Major William L Lee, USAAC on detail with MacArthur’s Military Advisors Office as its first Comdg O until 1938. It was Maj Lee who trained our early Phil pioneer air pilots like Majors Zablan, Fernando, etc. It was also during his time that Major Eisenhower earned his wings with PAAC.

In the same month, Major General Henry H. Arnold, chief of the new U.S. Army Air Forces, made a strong proposal for the reinforcement of the country’s defense. This proposal called for the transfer of over 400 aircraft to the Philippines, not for offensive but for “strategic defensive” purposes. Though the proposal was approved, it was hard to implement the recommendations, as many of the requested aircraft were either stationed in overseas bases, or still on the production lines. However, MacArthur was still able to negotiate the delivery of 81 P-40 type fighters by October 2, 1941.^[26]

III. The War Years

MacArthur expected hostilities to ensue in April 1942. By December 1941, he had made significant progress in organizing his forces, but there was still much to be done to make the Philippines ready to withstand a Japanese attack.^[27] By that time, there were 277 aircraft stationed in the Philippines, consisting of 74 bombers, 175 fighters and 28 miscellaneous aircraft. Another step towards an effective air force would be having the adequate facilities and fields. There were six identified fields where the facilities could be developed, and of these six, Clark could accommodate heavy bombers. Outside Luzon, there were another six fields available. MacArthur was allotted $2,730,000 in August and $7,000,000 in October and used most of these funds for the Nichols and Clark Fields, and auxiliary fields scattered around Luzon. MacArthur also established a heavy bomber base in Northern Mindanao, supposedly out of reach of the enemy.^[28]

Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the U.S. naval base in Hawaii, on December 7, 1941 (December 8, 2:30 a.m. local time); the U.S. declared war on Japan the next day. MacArthur had instructions from the War Department not to attack unless attacked first, so instead of conducting attack on the Japanese base in Formosa (now Taiwan), a reconnaissance mission to Formosa was done. The attack was authorized later in the day, and was set to take place on the morning of the following day, December 9.^[29] While two squadrons of B-17s were being refuelled and loaded bombs in Clark Field in preparation for the Formosa raid, the headquarters of the U.S. Far East Air Force (FEAF) at Nielson Field received reports from northwest Luzon of approaching Japanese bombers. A warning message was sent to Clark Field, but this message was either not received, or received when the radio operator had gone to lunch. No other form of communication was used. When the Japanese bombers arrived at Clark Field, all of the B-17s except for one were lined up on the field (although other sources claim that there were two B-17s^[30]). Clark Field was caught by surprise and the attack was more successful than the Japanese had expected.^[31] Morton writes:

Thus, after one day of war, with its strength cut in half, the Far East Air Force had been eliminated as an effective fighting force. Of the modern combat aircraft, only 17 of the original 35 B-17’s remained. Fifty-three P-40’s and 3 P-35’s had been destroyed, and an additional 25 or 30 miscellaneous aircraft (B-10’s, B-18’s, and observation planes) were gone. In addition, many of the planes listed as operational were heavily damaged. Installations at Clark and Iba were either burned out or badly hit. Total casualties for the day were 80 killed and 150 wounded. The total cost to the Japanese was 7 fighters.^[32]

After the first day of the war in the Pacific, the FEAF was practically left with one fighter squadron: the PAAC’s 6th Pursuit Squadron of twelve Boeing P-26s, commanded by Captain Jesus A. Villamor in Batangas Field.^[33]

Over the next few days, the Japanese bombed various military bases: Nichols Field, Camp Stotsenberg, Camp John Hay in Baguio, Zablan Field in Camp Murphy, Fort McKinley (now Fort Bonifacio), and the US Navy Yard in Cavite.^[34] Villamor engaged in two dog fights: one over Zablan Field on December 10, with Lieutenants Godofredo Juliano, Geronimo Aclan, Alberto Aranzaso, and Jose Gozar; and another on December 12 in Batangas with Lieutenants Juliano, Aclan, Cesar Basa, Manuel Conde, and Antonio Mondigo.^[35] During the December 12 dogfight, the 6th Pursuit Squadron was heavily outnumbered: six outdated P-26s against 27 Mitsubishi G3M bombers and an undetermined number of agile Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. The dogfight cost Basa his life, making him the first Filipino pilot to die in aerial combat in World War II.^[36]

In the diary entry of Ramon A. Alcaraz dated December 15, 1941, he recounts the bravery of the PAAC:

Several Air Force personnel made up for our many setbacks. Aside from Capt. Kelley’s bombing a Jap battleship during the Northern Luzon landings that made him our first war hero, our PAAC pilots have their share of accomplishments to be proud of Captain Jesus Villamor PAAC Comdr., 6th Pursuit Squadron, is credited with shooting down two enemy planes to date and was cited by Gen. MacArthur. Lt. Alberto Aranzaso PAAC, also a member of the 6th Pursuit Squadron of Villamor, is also credited with shooting down a Jap plane and was awarded the Silver Star.

Unfortunately, during the enemy strafings of Nichols Field, Lt. Cesar Basa who had just landed his plane and was running for cover was fatally hit in the head. Lt. Victor Osias who was nearby came to the rescue to no avail. Lt. Basa died in the arms of Osias. I know Lt. Basa personally during our O’s basketball league rivalry. He was the star of the PAAC Team while I played for the OSP Team. Another Atenista, Jose Syjuco played for the ROTC Team. Lt. Cesar Basa was an Ateneo basketball star before he became a pilot. He died a star, a hero.

On December 18, 1941, by virtue of Executive Order No. 386, s. 1941, the Philippine flag was reversed to indicate a state of war. Not since the Philippine-American War was the flag flown with the red side up.

By the end of December, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Backes, the commanding officer of the PAAC, ordered Villamor to destroy whatever aircraft that still remained and join the withdrawal to Bataan. Villamor later said of his experience:

Still, it pained me to have to destroy them, and I walked to my number 303 for a last farewell. Slowly I moved around the once-proud fighter to whose fibre my body, my mind, had once been welded. Her stubby body was now scarred and pitted. The wire brace wings were no longer smooth. The streamlined fairings which housed the wheels were torn. All over her olive drab were bare patches of aluminum. Still she could fly. Still she could lift me from the ground. … I could not destroy the plane myself. I told a sergeant to do the job, to attach dynamite to her and blow her up. As all of the planes burned, as they crackled with angry flames, I turned my back and shut my eyes tight.^[37]

The now “planeless” pilots were converted to ground troops (“flying infantry”, as they were called) and were taught how to operate guns—many for the first time.^[38]

On January 7, 1942, Felipe Buencamino III, in his diary, noted of the successes of the Japanese attack against the PAAC. He writes:

Jap successes in Luzon theater have been made possible by crippling of our airforce in first raids on Clark, Nichols, and Zablan. Many bombers were grounded. Right now, there are only seven fighters here in Bataan. Gen. Brereton, chief of airforce, has left for Australia. The New air chief is Gen. George. Saw hundred of men working on airfields in Cabcaben and Mariveles. Tractors were leveling ground. Giant cranes were roaring whole day. Labor crews were hastily building caves in mountain sides to serve as hangars for planes.

Meanwhile Japs dropped dozens of bombs in Cabcaben and Mariveles aerodromes. Huge craters made in middle of fields. As soon as Japs disappeared, men hurriedly covered bomb-holes and leveled ground with rollers.

He writes of the honors given to Villamor and G. Juliano, pilots of the PAAC:

Saw Jess Villamor and G. Juliano in quartermaster dump near Lamao field. Both fellows have been awarded Distinguished Flying Crosses for dogfights with Japs. Villamor was requisitioning for some uniforms. He had only two. They said they had no more planes and were waiting for shipments from Australia.

On February 7, 1942, Ramon Alcaraz described his brief encounter with these “planeless” pilots in Corregidor:

On my way back to Q-112 at the [Corregidor] wharf, I encountered my classmates Lts. Bartolome Cabangbang, Tomas Tirona, Damian Pavon and Alberto Aranzaso all PAAC pilots now without planes assigned to the AA Batteries in Corregidor. Aranzaso is one of our early heroes with Capt. Villamor shooting down enemy planes. It was a happy brief mini-reunion. I felicitated them for their accomplishments as well as their comrades with the PAAC Inf Bn under Capt. Pelagio Cruz, my provincemate, that fought and defeated the enemy that landed behind our MLR in the battle of Aglaloma Pt. The Voice of Freedom announced the heroism of this Bn as a Unit and cited the following officers awarded the Silver Stars (SS) for gallantry in action at Aglaloma: Capts. Pelagio Cruz; Eustacio Orobia; Pedro Q. Molina (Quezon’s nephew); and my Mistah Lt. Victor Osias. With the 5 SS earned by PAAC last Dec, they now have a total of 9 SS according to my book.

Amazing planeless PAAC, they still manage to earn SS as foot soldiers to show the world how versatile the USAFFE men are fighting in the jungles of Bataan that included young boys of a tender age like those Ateneo ROTC Volunteers very loyal to their Commandant, Capt. Eugenio G. Lara ’38.

The siege and defense of Bataan lasted 93 days—or just four months after the USAFFE retreated to Bataan. On April 9, 1942, General Edward P. King finally surrendered the Bataan command to the Japanese. This was followed by the fall of the island fortress of Corregidor, the last bastion of Filipino and American forces against the Japanese at the time, on May 6, 1942. The island was subjected to constant shelling from more than 300 full-scale Japanese air raids and hundreds of thousands of heavy artillery rounds—up to 16,000 on a single day. Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright, commander of the forces in Corregidor, surrendered to the General Masaharu Homma.

On April 19, 1942, in a bid to rescue the remaining PAAC in Mindanao, President Manuel L. Quezon, wrote to Field Marshal Douglas MacArthur from Australia requesting that the remaining Philippine Air Corps in Mindanao be rescued, so that they can “constitute a squadron with them so that they might do their bit in the fight in the air that is going on.” He added endearingly that “these boys can hold their own against the enemy.”

Ramon Alcaraz, having learned of the fate of the Filipino men who died in the siege, writes in his diary dated July 11, 1942 about his fallen colleagues in the PAAC:

According to Cavs Tirona and Cabangbang, it was also reported two other classmates, Alberto Aranzaso and Damian Pavon have died…. Before the surrender of Corregidor, Aranzaso and Pavon tried to convince them to escape from Corregidor to Cavite by small boat. They took separate boats that later capsized and sunk. Cav Aranzaso was a heroic P-26 pilot that challenged the Jap Zeros with Capt. Jesus Villamor last Dec. 10 and together, were the first recipients of Silver Stars personally awarded by Gen. MacArthur. Cav. Pavon was a 3-year starman qualified to be with the CE but chose to be with PAAC. He is another officer with great potential lost at a very young age 26. Aranzaso was 25 and Sagun 27 when they passed away. A sad day for me, indeed.

IV. The Philippine Air Force and the Post-War Years

After the war, the PAAC was later reorganized by U.S. Army Air Corps Lieutenant Colonel John Ryan, who became its acting chief until Lieutenant Colonel Edwin Andrews, an American mestizo pilot who joined the Muslim guerrillas in Mindanao after the fall of Bataan, returned to the Philippines after refresher training in the U.S.^[39]

Ryan activated the first two PAAC units on May 15, 1945: the 1st Air Engineering Squadron under Second Lieutenant Alejandro Ojeda and the 1st Air Materiel Squadron under Lieutenant Mariano Gomez. The two non-flying support units formed the 1st Air Service Group of the Philippine Army. Because the PAAC lacked facilities and equipment, the units were attached to the U.S. Army Air Corps 5th Air Service Command for maintenance and operation at Nielson Field. On September 1, 1945, the 1st Troop Carrier Squadron under Captain Roberto H. Lim was activated, making it the first of the post-war PAAC’s flying units.^[40]

Two events significantly affected the development of the post-war air force. The first was the return of PAAC pilots from the U.S. Pilots who survived the war were sent first to the Philippine Army’s provisional headquarters in Tacloban, Leyte for processing, then to the U.S. for refresher courses in flying. Pilots took up their courses at different levels; some started at the basic level, while the more experienced pilots started at the advanced level. The advanced pilots completed their course in a shorter span of time and started returning to the Philippines, just as the 1st Troop Carrier Squadron was being formed. Faced with too many pilots and not enough aircraft, Andrews decided to allow PAAC pilots to work for commercial airlines to keep their skills from deteriorating. After taking three months off for commercial flying, many pilots resigned from the military to join commercial airlines permanently. This exodus of military pilots would become a persistent problem of the air force.^[41]

The second event was the Cold War. On March 2, 1946, the Truman Doctrine was announced to the U.S. Congress. President Harry S. Truman’s new foreign policy stipulated that the U.S. would provide military aid to its allies. As a result, the Philippines became a recipient of much needed aircraft and equipment. The PAAC now had the capacity to activate a number of squadrons, including the 1st Air Squadron of the Military Police Command (later redesignated as the 1st Liaison Squadron) and the 1st Fighter Squadron.^[42]

On July 1, 1947, the Philippine Army Air Corps was converted to the Philippine Air Force (PAF) under Executive Order No. 94 during the administration of President Manuel Roxas. Under Section 107, the PAF was established as one of the three separate Major Commands of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) Regular Force, the other two being the Philippine Ground Force and the Philippine Naval Patrol. Roxas also became the first Philippine president to use aircraft on a regular basis.

Today, the PAF is undergoing modernization. For more details, visit the PAF website.

____________

Bibliography

Jose, Ricardo Trota, The Philippine Army 1935-1942. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1992.

Jose, Ricardo Trota, “The Philippine National Guard in World War I.” Philippine Studies Vol. 36 No. 3 (1988). 275-299.

Masuda, Hiroshi. MacArthur in Asia: The General and His Staff in the Philippines, Japan, and Korea. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.

Morton, Louis, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989.

Nemenzo, Eldon Luis G. and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story. Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992.

Philippine Air Force, Flight to the Future: Perspectives on the First 50 Years of the Philippine Air Force. Pasay City: Infinit-1 Communications Services, 1997.

Second Annual Report of the President of the Philippines to the President and the Congress of the United States Covering the Calendar Year Ended December 31, 1937. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1939. https://archive.org/stream/annualreport237phil#page/8/mode/2up

Villamor, Jesus A. and Gerald S. Snyder, They Never Surrendered: A True Story of Resistance in World War II (Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, 1982)

____________

Endnotes

^[1] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 12.

^[2] Ricardo Trota Jose, “The Philippine National Guard in World War I,” Philippine Studies Vol. 36 No. 3 (1988), p. 276.

^[3] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 12-14.

^[4] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 13.

^[5] Ricardo Trota Jose, “The Philippine National Guard in World War I,” Philippine Studies Vol. 36 No. 3 (1988), p. 291.

^[6] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 13.

^[7] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 14.

^[8] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 13; Philippine Air Force, Flight to the Future: Perspectives on the First 50 Years of the Philippine Air Force (Pasay City: Infinit-1 Communications Services, 1997), p. 8.

^[9] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 15-16

^[10] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 16.

^[11] Philippine Air Force, Flight to the Future: Perspectives on the First 50 Years of the Philippine Air Force (Pasay City: Infinit-1 Communications Services, 1997), p. 9.

^[12] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 20-21.

^[13] Philippine Air Force, Flight to the Future: Perspectives on the First 50 Years of the Philippine Air Force (Pasay City: Infinit-1 Communications Services, 1997), p. 9.

^[14] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 23.

^[15] Ricardo Trota Jose, The Philippine Army 1935-1942 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1992), p. 16.

^[16] Ricardo Trota Jose, The Philippine Army 1935-1942 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1992), p. 51.

^[17] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 11.

^[18] Ricardo Trota Jose, The Philippine Army 1935-1942 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1992), p. 68.

^[19] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 28.

^[20] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 30-31.

^[21] Hiroshi Masuda, MacArthur in Asia: The General and His Staff in the Philippines, Japan, and Korea (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012) p. 6; Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 49.

^[22] Second Annual Report of the President of the Philippines to the President and the Congress of the United States Covering the Calendar Year Ended December 31, 1937 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1939), p. 9-10, https://archive.org/stream/annualreport237phil#page/8/mode/2up.

^[23] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 15.

^[24] Ibid.

^[25] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 18.

^[26] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 37.

^[27] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 50.

^[28] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 43.

^[29] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 83-84.

^[30] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 72.

^[31] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 84-87.

^[32] Louis Morton, The War in the Pacific: The Fall of the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1989), p. 88.

^[33] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 73.

^[34] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p.

^[35] Jesus A. Villamor and Gerald S. Snyder, They Never Surrendered: A True Story of Resistance in World War II (Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, 1982), p. 32-36.

^[36] Jesus A. Villamor and Gerald S. Snyder, They Never Surrendered: A True Story of Resistance in World War II (Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, 1982), p. 38.

^[37] Jesus A. Villamor and Gerald S. Snyder, They Never Surrendered: A True Story of Resistance in World War II (Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, 1982), p. 42.

^[38] Philippine Air Force, Flight to the Future: Perspectives on the First 50 Years of the Philippine Air Force (Pasay City: Infinit-1 Communications Services, 1997), p. 14-16.

^[39] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 124.

^[40] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 124-125.

^[41] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 131.

^[42] Eldon Luis G. Nemenzo and Guillermo A. Molina Jr., The Philippine Air Force Story (Quezon City: Kaunlaran Trading and Printing Co., 1992), p. 131-132.